(a) Acts of Persecution

  Soft Law UNHCR, ‘Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees’, HCR/IP/4/Rev.1, 1979, paras. 51–60, 65.CasesNew Zealand Refugee Status Appeals Authority, (1999) [2000] NZLR 545, (Refugee Appeal No. 71427/99), paras. 43–53. (NZ administrative decision using international law principles to interpret the term ‘persecution’)Independent Federal Asylum Senate, (IFAS/UBAS) [Austria], Decision of 21 March 2002, IFAS 220.268/0-X1/33/00 (Austrian administrative appellate decision concluding that female genital mutilation constitutes persecution)Pitcherskaia v INS, 118 F 3d 641 (9th Cir 1997) (US judicial decision holding that forced treatment in psychiatric institution without intent to punish can constitute persecution)Korablina v INS, 158 F 3d 1038 (9th Cir 1998) (US judicial decision finding cumulative discrimination against Jewish woman in Ukraine constitutes persecution)UK Court of Appeal Adan and Aitseguer, 23 July 1999 [1999] 3 WLR 1274 UK House of Lords Regina v Secretary of State for the Home Department ex parte Adan; Regina v Secretary of State for The Home Department ex parte Aitseguer, Judgments of 19 December 2000), [2001] 2 WLR 143. (UK judicial decision upholding asylum for applicants fearing persecution by non-state actors)   Readings Core G. Goodwin-Gill and J. McAdam, The Refugee in International Law (Oxford:Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 90–94. [G. Goodwin-Gill, The Refugee in International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 66–70]. J. Hathaway, The Law of Refugee Status (Toronto: Butterworths, 1991), pp. 169–179.